Geomorphic processes refer to the natural mechanisms that shape the Earth’s surface, forming various landforms. These processes are broadly classified into endogenous (internal) and exogenous (external) processes.
Endogenous Processes
Endogenous processes are driven by the Earth’s internal energy, originating from its core. These processes lead to the formation and deformation of landforms.
Folding
Definition: Folding occurs when rock layers bend due to compressional forces within the Earth’s crust.
Types of Folds:
Anticline: Upward arching folds.
Syncline: Downward trough-like folds.
Monocline: A single bend in rock layers.
Examples of Landforms:
Fold Mountains: Himalayas, Alps.
Faulting
Definition: Faulting is the fracturing of rocks caused by tensional, compressional, or shearing forces.
Types of Faults:
Normal Fault: Caused by tension; the hanging wall moves downward.
Reverse Fault: Caused by compression; the hanging wall moves upward.
Strike-slip Fault: Horizontal movement along the fault line.
Examples of Landforms:
Rift Valleys: East African Rift Valley.
Block Mountains: Vosges (France), Sierra Nevada (USA).
Earthquakes
Definition: Vibrations of the Earth’s crust caused by the sudden release of energy along faults.
Causes:
Movement along faults.
Volcanic eruptions.
Plate tectonic activity.
Landforms:
Fault scarps.
Earthquake lakes formed due to blocked rivers.
Volcanic Activities
Definition: Eruption of magma, gases, and ash from the Earth’s mantle to the surface.
Types of Volcanoes:
Shield Volcanoes: Broad, dome-shaped; e.g., Mauna Loa (Hawaii).
Composite Volcanoes: Alternating layers of lava and ash; e.g., Mount Fuji (Japan).
Cinder Cones: Small, steep-sided; e.g., ParÃcutin (Mexico).
Landforms:
Volcanic cones, lava plateaus, calderas, and volcanic islands (e.g., Iceland).
Exogenous Processes
Exogenous processes are driven by external forces like wind, water, and ice, leading to the weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials.
Work of Rivers
Erosion:
Types: Hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition, and solution.
Features: V-shaped valleys, waterfalls, rapids, gorges.
Transportation: Sediment is carried as dissolved load, suspended load, or bedload.
Deposition:
Features: Floodplains, levees, deltas, and meanders.
Work of Glaciers
Erosion:
Processes: Plucking and abrasion.
Features: Cirques, arêtes, U-shaped valleys, and hanging valleys.
Deposition:
Features: Moraines, drumlins, eskers, and outwash plains.
Work of Winds
Erosion:
Processes: Deflation (removal of loose particles) and abrasion.
Features: Yardangs, deflation hollows, and ventifacts.
Deposition:
Features: Sand dunes (e.g., barchans, seif dunes) and loess deposits.
Work of Waves
Erosion:
Processes: Hydraulic action, corrosion, and attrition.
Features: Sea cliffs, wave-cut platforms, and sea caves.
Deposition:
Features: Beaches, spits, bars, lagoons, and tombolos.
Summary of Landform Development
| Process | Major Landforms |
| Folding | Fold mountains, valleys |
| Faulting | Rift valleys, block mountains |
| Earthquakes | Fault scarps, earthquake lakes |
| Volcanic Activity | Volcanic cones, calderas, lava plateaus |
| River Work | V-shaped valleys, deltas, meanders |
| Glacier Work | U-shaped valleys, moraines, eskers |
| Wind Work | Sand dunes, yardangs, loess deposits |
| Wave Work | Sea cliffs, beaches, spits |
Section 1: Endogenous Processes and Landforms
1.What is the upward arching of rock layers called?
A. Syncline
B. Anticline
C. Monocline
D. Fault
Answer: B. Anticline
Explanation: An anticline is an upward arching fold where the oldest rocks are at the core.
2.The Himalayas are an example of which type of mountains?
A. Block Mountains
B. Residual Mountains
C. Fold Mountains
D. Volcanic Mountains
Answer: C. Fold Mountains
Explanation: The Himalayas were formed by compressional forces due to the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
3.Which force causes folding of rocks?
A. Tensional Force
B. Compressional Force
C. Shearing Force
D. Gravitational Force
Answer: B. Compressional Force
Explanation: Folding occurs due to compressional forces acting on rock layers.
4.What is a monocline?
A. A fold with one limb horizontal.
B. A fold with one limb vertical.
C. A fold without movement.
D. A reverse fault.
Answer: A. A fold with one limb horizontal.
Explanation: A monocline has a single bend, where one part of the rock remains horizontal.
5.Which type of fold forms a trough-like structure?
A. Anticline
B. Syncline
C. Overturned Fold
D. Monocline
Answer: B. Syncline
Explanation: A syncline forms a trough where the youngest rocks are at the core.
6.What type of fault is caused by tensional forces?
A. Reverse Fault
B. Normal Fault
C. Strike-slip Fault
D. Thrust Fault
Answer: B. Normal Fault
Explanation: Normal faults occur when rocks are pulled apart, causing the hanging wall to move downward.
7.Which landform is formed by faulting?
A. Fold Mountains
B. Rift Valleys
C. Lava Plateaus
D. Cirques
Answer: B. Rift Valleys
Explanation: Rift valleys, like the East African Rift Valley, are formed due to faulting.
8.The Sierra Nevada is an example of which landform?
A. Block Mountain
B. Fold Mountain
C. Rift Valley
D. Volcanic Mountain
Answer: A. Block Mountain
Explanation: Sierra Nevada is formed due to faulting and uplift.
9.What is the point inside the Earth where an earthquake originates called?
A. Epicenter
B. Focus
C. Fault Plane
D. Hypocenter
Answer: B. Focus
Explanation: The focus is the point within the Earth where seismic waves are generated.
10.What scale measures earthquake intensity?
A. Richter Scale
B. Mercalli Scale
C. Mohs Scale
D. Beaufort Scale
Answer: B. Mercalli Scale
Explanation: The Mercalli scale measures the intensity based on observed effects.
11.Which type of volcano has a broad, gently sloping surface?
A. Shield Volcano
B. Composite Volcano
C. Cinder Cone
D. Dome Volcano
Answer: A. Shield Volcano
Explanation: Shield volcanoes, like Mauna Loa, have a broad surface formed by fluid lava flows.
12.What is a caldera?
A. A type of volcano.
B. A depression formed after a volcanic eruption.
C. A lava plateau.
D. A volcanic cone.
Answer: B. A depression formed after a volcanic eruption.
Explanation: Calderas form when the roof of a magma chamber collapses.
13.Which feature is formed by river erosion in its upper course?
A. Delta
B. V-shaped Valley
C. Ox-bow Lake
D. Levee
Answer: B. V-shaped Valley
Explanation: In the upper course, rivers erode vertically, creating V-shaped valleys.
14.What is a meander?
A. A depositional feature.
B. A curve or bend in a river.
C. A narrow river valley.
D. A levee.
Answer: B. A curve or bend in a river.
Explanation: Meanders are formed due to lateral erosion and deposition in a river’s middle course.
15.What type of delta is the Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta?
A. Arcuate Delta
B. Bird-foot Delta
C. Estuarine Delta
D. Inland Delta
Answer: A. Arcuate Delta
Explanation: The Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta has a fan-shaped structure.
16.What is a U-shaped valley?
A. A valley formed by rivers.
B. A valley formed by glaciers.
C. A valley formed by winds.
D. A valley formed by faulting.
Answer: B. A valley formed by glaciers.
Explanation: U-shaped valleys are formed due to the erosive action of glaciers.
17.What is a moraine?
A. A type of glacier.
B. A depositional feature of glaciers.
C. A river landform.
D. A wind-eroded feature.
Answer: B. A depositional feature of glaciers.
Explanation: Moraines are accumulations of rock debris deposited by glaciers.
18.What is a yardang?
A. A depositional feature of glaciers.
B. A wind-eroded ridge.
C. A river landform.
D. A volcanic feature.
Answer: B. A wind-eroded ridge.
Explanation: Yardangs are streamlined ridges formed by wind abrasion.
19.Which landform is created by wind deposition?
A. Cirque
B. Sand Dune
C. Fault Scarp
D. Lava Plateau
Answer: B. Sand Dune
Explanation: Sand dunes are formed when wind deposits sand in mounds or ridges.
20.What is a wave-cut platform?
A. A depositional feature.
B. A flat area formed by wave erosion.
C. A type of delta.
D. A glacial landform.
Answer: B. A flat area formed by wave erosion.
Explanation: Wave-cut platforms are formed by the erosion of cliffs by waves.
21.What is a floodplain?
A. A valley formed by glaciers.
B. A flat area formed by river deposition.
C. A volcanic feature.
D. A wind-eroded plain.
Answer: B. A flat area formed by river deposition.
Explanation: Floodplains are flat areas adjacent to a river, created by sediment deposition during floods.
22.Which feature is formed when a river flows over a steep gradient?
A. Waterfall
B. Meander
C. Delta
D. Levee
Answer: A. Waterfall
Explanation: Waterfalls occur where rivers flow over hard rock layers and steep gradients.
23.What is an oxbow lake?
A. A glacial landform.
B. A river meander cut off from the main flow.
C. A volcanic crater lake.
D. A lagoon.
Answer: B. A river meander cut off from the main flow.
Explanation: Oxbow lakes form when a meander is cut off, creating a separate water body.
24.Natural embankments formed by rivers are called?
A. Levees
B. Moraines
C. Deltas
D. Terraces
Answer: A. Levees
Explanation: Levees are raised banks formed by deposition of sediments during floods.
25.The deposition of sediments at the river mouth forms what feature?
A. Delta
B. Estuary
C. Lagoon
D. Basin
Answer: A. Delta
Explanation: Deltas form at river mouths when sediments are deposited faster than they can be removed.
26.What is a cirque?
A. A depositional feature of glaciers.
B. A bowl-shaped depression formed by glacial erosion.
C. A wind-eroded plain.
D. A volcanic vent.
Answer: B. A bowl-shaped depression formed by glacial erosion.
Explanation: Cirques are hollowed-out areas at the head of a glacier.
27.Which feature is formed by glacial deposition?
A. Drumlin
B. Canyon
C. Delta
D. Plateau
Answer: A. Drumlin
Explanation: Drumlins are elongated hills formed by glacial deposits.
28.A ridge of sediment deposited at the edge of a glacier is called?
A. Moraine
B. Esker
C. Cirque
D. Kettle
Answer: A. Moraine
Explanation: Moraines are ridges of debris deposited along the edges of glaciers.
29.What is a hanging valley?
A. A valley formed by wind.
B. A tributary valley higher than the main valley floor.
C. A river-formed valley.
D. A coastal plain.
Answer: B. A tributary valley higher than the main valley floor.
Explanation: Hanging valleys are formed where smaller glaciers join larger glacial valleys.
30.What is a deflation hollow?
A. A glacial feature.
B. A depression formed by wind erosion.
C. A river-formed landform.
D. A volcanic crater.
Answer: B. A depression formed by wind erosion.
Explanation: Deflation hollows are created when winds blow away loose materials.
31.Which feature is NOT formed by wind action?
A. Sand Dunes
B. Mushroom Rocks
C. Loess Deposits
D. U-shaped Valleys
Answer: D. U-shaped Valleys
Explanation: U-shaped valleys are formed by glaciers, not by wind.
32.Loess deposits are made of?
A. Sand
B. Clay
C. Fine silt and dust
D. Gravel
Answer: C. Fine silt and dust
Explanation: Loess is wind-deposited silt and is often very fertile.
33.Mushroom rocks are formed due to which process?
A. River deposition
B. Glacial erosion
C. Wind abrasion
D. Volcanic activity
Answer: C. Wind abrasion
Explanation: Wind erosion near the base of rocks forms mushroom-shaped structures.
34.What is a spit?
A. A wave-cut platform.
B. A narrow ridge of sand extending into the sea.
C. A river delta.
D. A volcanic feature.
Answer: B. A narrow ridge of sand extending into the sea.
Explanation: Spits form by wave deposition along the coast.
35.What are beaches formed by?
A. Wind action
B. Glacier deposition
C. Wave deposition
D. River erosion
Answer: C. Wave deposition
Explanation: Beaches are formed when waves deposit sand and gravel along the shoreline.
36.Which feature is formed by wave erosion?
A. Sea Arch
B. Lagoon
C. Tombolo
D. Sand Dune
Answer: A. Sea Arch
Explanation: Sea arches form when waves erode through a headland.
37.What is a lagoon?
A. A volcanic crater filled with water.
B. A shallow water body separated from the sea by a barrier.
C. A glacial lake.
D. A river oxbow lake.
Answer: B. A shallow water body separated from the sea by a barrier.
Explanation: Lagoons are coastal water bodies cut off from the main sea by sandbars or coral reefs.
38.What is a tombolo?
A. A mountain formed by volcanic activity.
B. A sandbar connecting an island to the mainland.
C. A river meander.
D. A coral reef.
Answer: B. A sandbar connecting an island to the mainland.
Explanation: Tombolos are formed by wave action depositing sand between an island and the mainland.
39.Which of the following is a feature of glacial erosion?
A. Esker
B. Arête
C. Drumlin
D. Delta
Answer: B. Arête
Explanation: An arête is a sharp ridge formed between two glacial valleys.
40.What is a fjord?
A. A volcanic vent.
B. A submerged glacial valley.
C. A river terrace.
D. A sand dune.
Answer: B. A submerged glacial valley.
Explanation: Fjords are long, narrow, and deep inlets formed by the submergence of glacial valleys.
41.Kettle holes are formed by?
A. River erosion.
B. Wind deflation.
C. Melting of buried ice blocks left by glaciers.
D. Volcanic eruptions.
Answer: C. Melting of buried ice blocks left by glaciers.
Explanation: Kettle holes are depressions created when ice blocks left by retreating glaciers melt.
42.What is a barchan?
A. A crescent-shaped sand dune formed by wind.
B. A volcanic cone.
C. A glacial valley.
D. A river island.
Answer: A. A crescent-shaped sand dune formed by wind.
Explanation: Barchans are crescent-shaped dunes formed in areas with limited vegetation and unidirectional winds.
43.What is desert pavement?
A. A layer of sand covering the desert.
B. A surface covered with closely packed gravel and pebbles.
C. A dune created by wind.
D. A volcanic rock layer in deserts.
Answer: B. A surface covered with closely packed gravel and pebbles.
Explanation: Desert pavements form when fine particles are removed by wind, leaving coarser materials.
44.What are yardangs?
A. Ridge-like landforms carved by wind erosion.
B. A river feature.
C. A coastal landform.
D. A volcanic feature.
Answer: A. Ridge-like landforms carved by wind erosion.
Explanation: Yardangs are elongated ridges formed by wind abrasion and deflation in deserts.
45.What is a wave-cut platform?
A. A volcanic plateau.
B. A flat surface formed by wave erosion along a coast.
C. A river delta.
D. A glacial deposit.
Answer: B. A flat surface formed by wave erosion along a coast.
Explanation: Wave-cut platforms are flat surfaces found at the base of cliffs due to wave erosion.
46.Which coastal landform is formed by deposition?
A. Sea Arch
B. Tombolo
C. Wave-Cut Cliff
D. Blowhole
Answer: B. Tombolo
Explanation: Tombolos form when wave action deposits sand, connecting an island to the mainland.
47.A submerged coastline can result in which feature?
A. Ria
B. Cliff
C. Beach
D. Spit
Answer: A. Ria
Explanation: Rias are drowned river valleys formed due to rising sea levels.
48.What is a blowhole?
A. A volcanic vent.
B. A coastal feature where water is forced through a hole in the rock.
C. A glacial feature.
D. A wind-eroded hollow.
Answer: B. A coastal feature where water is forced through a hole in the rock.
Explanation: Blowholes form when waves erode a hole in coastal rocks, forcing water upward.
49.The point on the Earth’s surface directly above the earthquake focus is called?
A. Epicenter
B. Hypocenter
C. Seismic zone
D. Rift
Answer: A. Epicenter
Explanation: The epicenter is the surface location above the earthquake’s focus.
50.What is a caldera?
A. A collapsed volcanic crater.
B. A mountain formed by faulting.
C. A glacial valley.
D. A wind-eroded feature.
Answer: A. A collapsed volcanic crater.
Explanation: Calderas form when a volcanic eruption empties a magma chamber, causing the surface to collapse.
51.Which scale measures earthquake magnitude?
A. Richter Scale
B. Mercalli Scale
C. Mohs Scale
D. Beaufort Scale
Answer: A. Richter Scale
Explanation: The Richter scale quantifies the energy released during an earthquake.
52.Which volcano type is characterized by steep slopes and explosive eruptions?
A. Shield Volcano
B. Composite Volcano
C. Fissure Volcano
D. Dome Volcano
Answer: B. Composite Volcano
Explanation: Composite volcanoes, like Mt. Fuji, have steep slopes and erupt explosively.
53.What is the primary cause of earthquakes?
A. Erosion
B. Tectonic plate movements
C. Wind action
D. Volcanic eruptions only
Answer: B. Tectonic plate movements
Explanation: Most earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy due to plate movements.
54.Which seismic wave travels fastest?
A. P-Waves
B. S-Waves
C. Surface Waves
D. Love Waves
Answer: A. P-Waves
Explanation: P-waves (primary waves) are compressional waves that travel the fastest.
55.What is the focus of an earthquake?
A. The point where seismic waves are strongest.
B. The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates.
C. The location of maximum damage on the surface.
D. The boundary between tectonic plates.
Answer: B. The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates.
Explanation: The focus is the origin of seismic energy within the Earth’s crust.
56.Which of the following is a volcanic landform?
A. Anticline
B. Crater
C. Syncline
D. Fault scarp
Answer: B. Crater
Explanation: A crater is a bowl-shaped depression at the top of a volcano.
57.Which of these volcanoes is known for continuous eruptions?
A. Mt. Vesuvius
B. Stromboli
C. Kilimanjaro
D. Fuji
Answer: B. Stromboli
Explanation: Stromboli, in Italy, is called the “Lighthouse of the Mediterranean” due to its regular eruptions.
58.Which layer of the Earth generates most earthquakes?
A. Crust
B. Mantle
C. Outer Core
D. Inner Core
Answer: A. Crust
Explanation: Most earthquakes occur in the crust, where tectonic plates interact.
59.What is a pyroclastic flow?
A. A slow-moving lava flow.
B. A fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic materials.
C. A river formed near a volcano.
D. A sediment deposit from glaciers.
Answer: B. A fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic materials.
Explanation: Pyroclastic flows are highly destructive flows of volcanic gas and ash.
60.What type of volcano is Mauna Loa in Hawaii?
A. Composite
B. Shield
C. Dome
D. Cinder Cone
Answer: B. Shield
Explanation: Shield volcanoes, like Mauna Loa, have gentle slopes formed by low-viscosity lava.
61.What is a meander?
A. A straight section of a river.
B. A winding curve or bend in a river.
C. A delta formation.
D. A waterfall feature.
Answer: B. A winding curve or bend in a river.
Explanation: Meanders form as rivers erode laterally and deposit sediments.
62.Which feature is created when a meander is cut off?
A. Levee
B. Ox-bow lake
C. Delta
D. Alluvial fan
Answer: B. Ox-bow lake
Explanation: Ox-bow lakes form when a river cuts across the neck of a meander.
63.The mouth of a river where sediments are deposited is called a?
A. Canyon
B. Delta
C. Waterfall
D. Gorge
Answer: B. Delta
Explanation: Deltas form at river mouths where sediment is deposited in large quantities.
64.What is an alluvial fan?
A. A feature of glacial deposition.
B. A fan-shaped deposit of sediment at the base of a mountain.
C. A wind-eroded ridge.
D. A river-cut valley.
Answer: B. A fan-shaped deposit of sediment at the base of a mountain.
Explanation: Alluvial fans are formed when rivers deposit sediments on flat plains.
65.What is a natural levee?
A. A river channel feature.
B. A raised embankment formed by river deposition during floods.
C. A man-made dam.
D. A glacial deposit.
Answer: B. A raised embankment formed by river deposition during floods.
Explanation: Levees are formed along riverbanks during floods.
66.Which feature is formed when waves erode through a headland?
A. Spit
B. Sea Arch
C. Lagoon
D. Tombolo
Answer: B. Sea Arch
Explanation: Sea arches form when waves erode a headland completely through to the other side.
67.What is a spit?
A. A submerged coastal feature.
B. A long, narrow ridge of sand projecting into the sea.
C. A volcanic formation.
D. A glacial landform.
Answer: B. A long, narrow ridge of sand projecting into the sea.
Explanation: Spits form due to longshore drift depositing sand along the coast.
68.What is a lagoon?
A. A volcanic crater filled with water.
B. A shallow body of water separated from the sea by a barrier.
C. A deltaic feature.
D. A glacial feature.
Answer: B. A shallow body of water separated from the sea by a barrier.
Explanation: Lagoons are often formed behind barrier islands or spits.
69.The process of landform creation is called?
A. Denudation
B. Geomorphology
C. Morphogenesis
D. Weathering
Answer: C. Morphogenesis
Explanation: Morphogenesis refers to the processes that create landforms.
70.Which type of weathering occurs due to temperature changes?
A. Chemical weathering
B. Physical weathering
C. Biological weathering
D. Abrasion
Answer: B. Physical weathering
Explanation: Physical weathering, like exfoliation, occurs due to temperature changes.
71.Which is an example of chemical weathering?
A. Frost action
B. Oxidation
C. Abrasion
D. Deflation
Answer: B. Oxidation
Explanation: Oxidation is a chemical process where minerals react with oxygen, leading to weathering.
72.What is a glacier?
A. A large body of flowing water.
B. A mass of ice moving under its own weight.
C. A type of volcanic activity.
D. A sand dune formed by wind.
Answer: B. A mass of ice moving under its own weight.
Explanation: Glaciers form in cold regions where snow accumulates, compresses, and flows.
73.Which landform is created by glacial erosion?
A. U-shaped valley
B. V-shaped valley
C. Delta
D. Levee
Answer: A. U-shaped valley
Explanation: U-shaped valleys are formed as glaciers carve out the landscape, leaving wide, flat-bottomed valleys.
74.What is a moraine?
A. A river deposition feature.
B. A pile of debris deposited by a glacier.
C. A volcanic landform.
D. A wave-formed coastal feature.
Answer: B. A pile of debris deposited by a glacier.
Explanation: Moraines consist of rocks and sediments carried and left by moving glaciers.
75.What are cirques?
A. Coastal features formed by wave erosion.
B. Bowl-shaped depressions formed by glacial erosion.
C. Wind-eroded landforms.
D. River-formed features.
Answer: B. Bowl-shaped depressions formed by glacial erosion.
Explanation: Cirques are often found at the head of a glacial valley.
76.What is an esker?
A. A glacial erosion feature.
B. A ridge formed by glacial meltwater streams.
C. A volcanic vent.
D. A sand deposit by wind.
Answer: B. A ridge formed by glacial meltwater streams.
Explanation: Eskers are long, winding ridges formed by streams flowing beneath glaciers.
77.What is a sand dune?
A. A feature formed by river deposition.
B. A hill of sand formed by wind action.
C. A feature of volcanic origin.
D. A glacial deposit.
Answer: B. A hill of sand formed by wind action.
Explanation: Sand dunes are created by the deposition of sand carried by winds in arid regions.
78.What is deflation?
A. The process of glacier movement.
B. The removal of fine soil particles by wind.
C. The weathering of rocks by water.
D. The collapse of volcanic craters.
Answer: B. The removal of fine soil particles by wind.
Explanation: Deflation is a key process of wind erosion, common in deserts.
79.Which feature is created by wind deposition?
A. Yardang
B. Loess
C. Fjord
D. Spit
Answer: B. Loess
Explanation: Loess is a fine-grained sediment deposited by wind over large areas.
80.What is a mushroom rock?
A. A rock shaped by wave action.
B. A volcanic landform.
C. A rock sculpted by wind erosion, narrow at the base.
D. A river erosion feature.
Answer: C. A rock sculpted by wind erosion, narrow at the base.
Explanation: Mushroom rocks, also called pedestal rocks, are formed when wind erodes the base more than the upper part.
